Bibliography+of+Sources

1. Baumgardner, Robert J (ed). //South Asian English: Structure, Use and Users//. United States of America: University of Illinois Press, 1996. 2. Kwan-Terry, Anna (ed). //Child Language Development in Singapore and Malaysia.// Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1991. 3. Wong, Lian-Aik. //A Descriptive Analysis of the Varieties of Singapore English - as recreated by SIngapore Writers of Fiction//. Michigan: A Bell & Howell Company, 1994.

(PROPER REF REQUIRED HERE)

4. Wong, Jock. '"Why You So Singlish One?" A Semantic and Cultural Interpretation of the Singapore English Particle One//'// in //Language in Society//, Vol 34, No 2 (Apr. 2005) pp. 239 -275 Cambridge University Press.

5. Platt, John T. 'The Singapore English Speech Continuum adn Its Basilect 'Singlish' as a 'Creoloid'' in //Anthropological Linguistics// vol 17, no. 7 (Oct., 1975) pp 363-374. Trustees of Indiana University (363) The question arises as to the linguistic status of the whole speech continuum and of perhaps the most interesting sub-variety of it, the basilect, at times half-jokingly referred to as 'Singlish'. Background of extremely complex language situation in Sgp arising from a mixture of ethnic, socioeconomic and educational factors past and present. (365) In 1956, a bilingual primary and secondary education policy was implemented but constant increase in choice of English as first language. (366) basilectal sub-variety at the lower end of English speech continuum in Sgp aka Singlish. Did not develop from pidgin but shares many features with a creole existence traced to transference of certain features from langauge of local ethnic groups to English acquired by children. transference consolidated by informal situations at school and with siblings. increase in local teachers who spoke noteceably sgp English. (367) greatest influence from main Chinese dialects spoken in sgp (hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew) development of SE diagram (!!!!) SE become a speech variety which is certainly used widely by most young sgp of chinese background, both as lingua franca (370) SCE, the basilectal form of SE warrants particular attention as it bears some resemblance to the basilectal ends of some creoles, and especially some post-creoles. SCE can be the first language of osme speakers, or acquires soon after acquisition of a chinese dialect - producing near-native speakers. for most it is a second language. (371) SE did not develop out of a pidgin. Even the Basilect, singlish, differs from a pidgin like Bazaar Malay or local pidgin English in that i is not drastically reduced in lexicon or syntax. used for intra ethnic and inter-ethnic communciation. incompatible with the usual concet of creole share certain features of post creoles (372) It is a Creloid (description on pg 372)

6. Foley, Joseph (ed). //New Englishes: The Case of Singapore//. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1988. (ix) 'English functions side by side with other languages to a degree unmatched by any other language. It is one of 23 languages, the others being Malay, Mandarin and Tamil.' 'In Singapore, especially in the last 20 years, the spread of English was propelled by a range of factors deriving from a context formed by four cultures. It is a link language between the different ethnic groups, the language of administration and higher education, of regional and international contact, of the technological, financial, manufacturing and other infrastructure upon which the economy rests.' (xi) The 'new Englishes' on the other hand have two major features, in that English is only one of two or more codes in the linguistic repertoire and that it has acquired an important status in the language of such multilingual nations. Also in functional terms the 'new Englishes' have extended their functional range in a variety of social, educational, administrative, and literary domains.' (as opposed to old Englishes -America, Britain, AUstralia and English as a foreign language used as a necessary international language - Japan, China, Indonesia) (xiv) There has been much research on what constitutes Singapore English as a foundation to codify this variety of English (eg. "Towards a Description of Standard Singapore English, Tay and Gupta, 1983). (xviii) no problem at the intra-communication level within Sgp but may be problematic in the wider inter-communication at an international level. (2) (3) (4) (5) (11) (18) Richards and Tay (1981:48 -49) //(22)// We still, therefore, have a long way to go before we can adequately describe what is Singapore English but past studies have provided us with a beginning from which to build the future.
 * Foreword**
 * Introduction**
 * Studies in Singapore English: Looking Back and Looking Forward ( J.A. Foley, 1)**
 * English in Singapore for international and intranational purposes.
 * local English developing its own norms, in pronunciation, vocabulary and to a lesser extent in grammar.
 * possible conflict between official reality and actual facts eg. National Language is Malay, Official Languages are Malay, Mandarin, Tamil and English. Depending on definition of National and Official Language, some argue that English has become the //de facto// national language of Singapore (Llamzon, 1977, 39) while others belive this is not necessary the case as English is only the dominant working language (Afrendras 180: 18)
 * The linguistic cycle in many Anglophone colonies of English moving from a foreign language to English as a second language and then back to English as a foreign language after independence has been broken in Singapore. English seems to be moving from a second language to a native language.
 * English had colonial origin in sgp but politically neutral as no cultural community has special claim.
 * (arnd 1941) English was the language taught in the schools to provide clerks for offices and the lower level of the colonial administration. English although an exoglossic language and a language of the colonial end of the Second World War, a lingua franca of the more elite sections of society.
 * Parents in sgp wanted their children to be educated in English, if this was the sole medium for higher education and international community.
 * In Sgp, formal and informal english? eg. one used in official settings and then Singlish.
 * three groups
 * 1) English educated and English speaking parents. no significant ability in any other language
 * 2) use english in 80-90% of their communication but also fluent or competent in one or more languages.
 * 3) Those that use English only for simple transactions(taxi drivers, shop assistants)
 * Singapore English as a post creole language?
 * //This 'national identity' by which a Singaporean identifies himself as 'Singaporean' rather than as 'Chinese', 'Malay' or 'Tamil' is best expressed through the use of English.....The use of English as a language for the expression of one's national identitty also explains why the English of some SIngaporeans is considered 'near-native' rather than 'native'. Their speech is characterized by stress and intonation patterns which do not conform to those of the 'well established' varieties of English such as British English and American English.//
 * A Standard for Written Singapore English? (Anthea Fraser Gupta, 27)**
 * (29) All spoken usage in Singapore by Singaporeans with Singaporeans is subject to complex constraints on variety choice and certainly SgE should not be seen as a single variety
 * (31) The situation is further confused by the presence of a colloquial variety which can be described as creolised to the extent that is syntax is virtually a calque on Hokkien, spoken b speakers of very diverse personal linguistic backgrounds, and which is similar to, but not the same as, varieties spoken by persons whose English proficiency can be described as rudimentary. Indeed in Singapore, the usage of English can be seen as diglossic for speakers who are highly proficient in the most standard variety of English.
 * On the whole, in Singapore, it is seen as very undesirable, by both government and educators.
 * (32) FIGURE 1 (HELPFUL DIAGRAM?)
 * (39) __Items of local reference:__ There are often words of non-English origin, for which there is no English equivalent, and which express a concept, or refer to an item which is locally but not or not yet) internationally relevant.
 * (44) __Locally Stigmatised__: British StE is accepted in Singapore to such an extent that any usage which was pointed out as being different from that mode would be immediately stigmatised.
 * (45) __Difficulty in controlling Std__: In case of schools, textbooks and teaching material are controlled bt teaching remains in hands of teachers
 * The English Language Syllabus and the Pre-School Child (J.A.Foley, 51)**.
 * (51) Sgp is a multiethnic society with 77% chinese, 15% Malays, % Indian, 2% other ethnic in 1980 census of 2.4 millio.
 * Although there are 4 official languages, in actual practice English has become the de facto national language.
 * Significant that English is not part of the cultural groups.
 * English, a non-native language, has been given the function of a superordinate language of education, administration, trade and international relations. This has produced a distinctive variety of English.
 * __Trends:__ 3rd person singular present tense marking 'who so no light?', 'my mother scold me'
 * A description of patterns of code-mixing and code-switching in a multilingual Household (Tan Peck Tung, 70)**
 * code switching denotes the distinct functional contexts in which a multilingual makes alternate use of two or more languages; code mixing refers to "the use of one or more languages for consistent transfer of linguistic units from one language into another, and by such a language mixture developing a new restricted or not so restricted code of linguistic interaction." (Kachru 1978:28)
 * (78) Constant interaction among the different speech communities (Malay, Chinese, Indian) has resulted in a great number of loanwords from these languages into English.
 * (90) syntax of English modified, similar to chinese eg. SE (Why do you want to go?), SGPE (Why you want to go?) Madarin (weisehnme ni yao qu?) Trend towards word for word translatability of codes explains many of the syntactic changed which Singapore English has undergone. Lexical items and phrases (loh, lah) have been frequently borrowed to fill gaps in English.
 * (91) beneath the random and confusing mass of language variation, there is actually some sort of patterning of language behaviour which is guided along sociolinguistic rather than purely linguistic grounds.
 * Talking to Children in a Multilingual Household (Julie Bradshaw and Hew Yee Lan, 100)**
 * The Staccato Effect in the Pronounciation of English in Malaysia and Singapore (Adam Brown, 115)**
 * The Negative Dual in Singapore English (Loh Siew Kwi and Godfrey Harrison, 169)**

7. Pakir, Anne (ed). //Words in a Cultural Context//. Singapore: Unipress, 1992. - Particularly food and cultural items - Difficulty in spelling (English or hanyu pinyin for chinese) - Eg. Sgp English terms appear as understatements of their general English equivalents a) Words often considered as slang, whose use is mostly in colloquial speech - Chinese or Malay stems with English suffixed and inflectional endings (eg. Heowsified, tidakpathy) b) Idioms, idiomatic and figurative expressions – expressions fall into four groups: (i) English : no head no tail, father’s scholarship (ii) Malay : china bukit, potong jalan (iii) Chinese (hokkien) : chiak chua, ngeow (iv) English/local languages : (malay/English – make noise/bising bising) (Chinese/English – catch no ball/liak boh kiu) - Dress : (i) Chinese: samfoo, cheongsam (ii) Malay: baju kurong (iii) Indian: Sari (iv) English: orchid dress, Japanese slippers //(A Term) is an expression that is something more than just a description, one that carries a certain degree of public recognition, an official status awarded by the speech community in general or at least claimed by the speaker. There are two halves to a term: forma and meaning. It is necessary that both have official status: the meaning must be recognized as familiar and nameworthy and the form must be acknowledged as a standard way of designating that meaning. Contrast this with made-up expressions or nonce forms, which lack such official status, either because the meaning has not been recognized as nameworthy and requires an ad hoc description, or because the meaning is referred to in an unfamiliar way.// (1982: 5-6)
 * Considerations in Tracing Etymologies ( Anthea Fraser Gupta p. 48)**
 * (p. 49) Several words in colloquial English of Singapore has been cross-borrowed. That is, they appear as loanwords in more than one language. An important issue is the use of items of Hokkien origin in Baba Malay, many of which are used in SCE (food names, cultural references). Words of Malay origin are also used in Chinese carieties. Coversely, items of Malay origin which have been borrowed into general English may be treated differently in Singapore English because the recognition of their origin prevents their full assimilation.
 * A loanword into English which has an ultimate source in Language A may have entered English through mediation of Language B.
 * The A to Z of Singapore Life – The Selection of Lexical Entries (Rosemary Koo p.105)**
 * (p.105) SCE consist of wide semantic coverage eg. Eggs – black eggs, red eggs ( baby’s one month), salted eggs, duck’s egg etc.
 * Diversity among generations. (p. 106) Since Sgp’s political independence, the move towards economic development, urban renewal, social rogress and national defence has led to the introduction of many policies, schemes, campaigns and concepts which has generated a whole new crop of terms and expressions in the last twenty years or so. Fresh words, the Singapore colloquialisms constantly emerge among the younger set the national servicemen, the undergrad and the older generation may be at a loss in understanding the new patois (rural, colloquial language)
 * Eg ‘take the ECP to NUS if you want to avoid the CBD’
 * Mainly derived from oral sources since it is the oral medium that exhibits the widest divergence from General English usage. As many of the entries are colloquialisms, they have seldom or never appeared in print…spellings of words have appeared in written medium have been idiosyncratic.
 * (p.107) Malay and Chinese words crop p frequently in SCE because they are so expressive and for which no English equivalents can be found with the same force of emotion.
 * Categories (p.108-114):
 * 1) 1. Words or senses currently used in General English but which originated from the countries where the early immigrants came from. These words can normally be found in any standard English dictionary as they have been accepted as part of the English language.
 * 1) 2. Words used in General English but which have a different meaning in Singapore usage.
 * SE || GE ||
 * Very nice || Excellent ||
 * Can do || Good ||
 * Not so good || Satisfactory ||
 * Lousy || Bad ||
 * 1) 3. Words used in SE but are not part of the English language outside SGP and Malaysia
 * 1) 4. Words/Expressions used to depict local practices, customs, campaigns, sports, crafts, local foods, housing, education, the environment etc, - in short, the folk ways and lifestyles of Singaporeans.
 * (p. 115) Colloquialisms by their very definition do not belong to print except when used in dialogue, and by virtue of not being recorded soon end up in the dust heap of forgotten words.
 * Text Analysis and Lexicographical Research: Implications for Singapore English (Jonathan Webster, 172)**
 * (p.172) One significant aspect of cultural context is the written and spoken discourse of those who belong to and identify with that culture.
 * Words in a cultural context: Term selection (Ho CHee Lick, 202)**
 * Discussion by Pawley, Andrew. 1982. Lexicalization. Paper read to the 4th New Zealand Linguistic Society Congress at Christchurch & //Languages and Linguistics: The Interdependence of Theory, Data, and Application// Washington: Georgetown Unviersity Press.
 * (p.204Lexicalization (expressions attaining lexical or terminological status)
 * Terms – common usages, ‘familiar ways of expressing familiar ideas’
 * (p.208) Chinese educated chinese, english educated chinese, Malays and Indians.
 * (p.213) Conventional terms used in the cultural context of Singapore...it is a language museum, a culture museum and a history museum all in one.

8. Ooi, Vincent B. Y (ed). //Evolving Identities: The English Language in Singapore and Malaysia//. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 2001. Pg 70

- Singapore English as it is known today is the product of a successful educational system with English as the language of instruction (cf. Tay, 1979; Foley, 1988; Pakir, 1991; Foley et al., 1998). For this reason, Singapore English should not be considered a creole, since it lacks a pidgin as its predecessor. Nevertheless, Singapore English exhibits grammatical features which arise through language contact. Since the local languages continue to be spoken, and standard English continues to be emphasised in the educational system and enjoys prestigious status, we would expect the grammar of Singapore English to be in constant state of flux.
 * Tense

Pg 73

In SE, notion of diglossia applied more narrowly. It refers to different varieties of English: the H variety is StdE, and the L variety is localised variety of English (CSE)


 * Tense and Aspect in Singapore English (pg 79 – 88)**


 * 6.1 Time and Tense**

One of the most common observations made about CSE is that verbs carry no tense markings Verbs seem to appear in bare form, carrying no overt form of tense marking. There is thus no morphological marking on the verb to indicate past time (a). CSE has no present tense markings on the verb (c)
 * //__Morphological markings on the verb (pg 79)__//


 * 1) a. //She// shop //here yesterday// (CSE)
 * 2) b. //She// shopped //here yesterday// (SSE)


 * 1) c. //He always// cook //dinner for his mother// (CSE)
 * 2) d. //He always// cooks dinner //for his mother// (SSE)

Even no difference in past and present tense forms in subclass of strong verbs (go-went, see-saw) e.g. My mum she come (came) from China many years ago Oh, I see (saw) him last week

One of reasons for this indifference in tense forms: influence from Chinese and Malay background. (However, this might be the general pattern as this occurs in other forms of English as well e.ge British English, they omit tense in third person when using colloquial terms)

Copular (Linking verb)

Copular verbs, although use in CSE, are not obligatory to the clause. The difference therefore is that British English requires all its clauses to have verbal predicates, while CSE distinguishes between clauses that describe states from those that describe actions. Not random but structurally conditioned by what follows the verb. E.g verb omitted when preceding an adjective phrase This house very big However, used when the following complement is a noun phase (John___ my lecturer) or a preposition phrase indicating location (The girl___ in school) (Influence of substratal languages – Chinese, Malay) Must refer to present time (the girl is in school) Past time – adverbial to indicate past time (the girl in school just now)
 * __Utterances with no verbs__


 * 6.2 Aspect (pg 83)**

Way in which an action or state is regarded, whether something has been completed, or is still ongoing. Even when the time reference remains the same, an event can be portrayed in different ways. In CSE, the use of time adverbials is clearly preferred over the morphological marking of aspect, e.g.,


 * 1) a. My father passed away already (CSE)
 * 2) b. My father has passed away (SSE)
 * 3) c. Morphological ending: My father passed away already (CSE – //has// is omitted)


 * 1) d. She eat her lunch already (CSE)
 * 2) e. She has eaten her lunch (SSE)
 * 3) f. Morphological ending: She eaten her lunch already (CSE – //Has// is omitted)

The use of adverbials as aspectual markers is one reason why certain adverbials, e.g., //always, still, already//, are more free frequently used in Singapore English than British English. e.g. She //ate// lunch //already//
 * Common in CSE: past tense + adverbial (already)

//__Perfective aspect: already (pg 84)__//
 * Common way to express perfective aspect is to use ‘already’
 * //Already// likely to be linked to //liau// in Hokkien used to mark completion
 * Inchaotive aspect (change of state)
 * e.g ‘already in inchoative aspect’

a. My baby speak already (CSE)

b. My baby has started to speak (SSE)

(parallel to //le// in Mandarin)

//__Progressive aspect (pg 85)__//
 * Morphologically marked with –ing to indicate progression of an ongoing event


 * 1) a. She told you she going to cinema with us or not? (CSE)
 * 2) b. Did she tell you whether she was going to cinema with us? (SSE)


 * Often marks the progressive aspect with //still//


 * 1) a. Don’t disturb them, they still studying (CSE)
 * 2) b. Don’t disturb them, they are studying (SSE)

//__Irrealis aspect (pg 86)__//

a. I will help you, but I’m not sure if my brother would. (‘I will’ – is in his control, ‘would’ expresses what he is unsure of, whether his bro will offer the same help) a. I am sorry to tell you that I //would// have to turn down your loan application
 * *What is not actually so, but may be so
 * ‘Would’
 * (they find it more polite than ‘will)
 * e.g.
 * marker of tentativeness (hesitance)
 * e.g. polite use of ‘would’

//__Habitual Aspect (pg 87)__//
 * ‘Always’
 * 1) a. My brother //always// jog every morning (CSE)
 * 2) b. My brother jobs every morning (SSE)


 * 1) c. My brother want to dances with her
 * 2) d. My brother always want to dance with her (habitual occurrence)


 * (pg 88 in conclusion):
 * //It would be counterproductive to dismiss CSE as haphazard or corrupt English when it is so evident that it is a highly ordered and structured system//


 * Reduplication in Colloquial Singapore English (pg 89)**

__Introduction__ - Systematic - Convey specific meanings - Restrictions
 * Reduplication very common in CSE but not StdE
 * Partly because of this, reduplication in CSE is sometimes taken to be characteristic of what is ‘broken’ or ‘bad’ about CSE.

__Reduplication of nouns (pg 90)__
 * E.g. Where’s your boy-boy (boyfriend/son)
 * Have you seen Ry-Ry (Henry)
 * *Marks affection or intimacy
 * Nouns for which feelings of affection is unlikely to hold do not reduplicate

__Reduplication of adjectives (pg 91)__
 * E.g. Don’t always eat sweet-sweet things (very sweet)
 * Why I never see you wear those short-short (very short) skirts one ah?
 * *Marks intensification of base adjective
 * Also comparatives (make it smaller-smaller)

__Reduplication of verbs (92)__
 * Attenuation – Go outside and walk-walk (less focused, more casual)
 * Continuity – Take bus no good, always stop-stop-stop (keep on stopping) (continuous)

__*Adverbs do not reduplicate (e.g no loudly-loudly)__
 * Rather, CSE tends to use adjectives where (StdE) uses advers
 * 1) a. You walk so slow (CSE)
 * 2) b. You walk so slowly (StdE)


 * 1) c. Why you look at me so angry? (CSE)
 * 2) d. Why do you look at me so angrily? (StdE)


 * (pg 101) Reduplication in CSE is indeed patterned and systematic, even though such patterning and systematicity is not always immediately obvious. This argues against the simplistic labelling of CSE as ‘bad’ or ‘broken’ English.

9. Gupta, Anthea Fraser. //The Step-Tongue: Children’s English in Singapore//. England: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1994.

Three factors have influenced all the languages of Singapore, and have let to the emergence, in this century, of SCE: (1) Extensive contact of speakers of different languages (including domestic contact) (2) Almost total absence of monolingual people (3) The widespread learning of English, both formally and informally English introduced in Singapore in the mid 19th Century as a language of education. Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) – Low (L) variety of English (L language) Used in home or casual situations SCE features (1) Use of pragmatic particles. Mostly loans from southern varieties of Chinese, which are used to indicate the attitude of the speakers to what they are saying. “La” “Semantically empty” Kind of has an assertive emphasis? Used to show commitment to what he has said? “mah” and “what” – contradictory particles
 * Native Speaker of English in Singapore - 5 **
 * Diglossia in Singapore English – 7 **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Features of SCE and StdE – 9 **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Eg. Her price is too hard for me lah

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(2) Verb groups without subjects <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Subject is not required to be expressed <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">E.g <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Go where? (you) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The cupboard hit. The scratch dry part off, then got blood come out of it. (Explaining why his leg is bleeding – ‘he’ is the subject of ‘scratch’) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(3) Conditional clauses without subordinating conjunction. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(4) –ing as Finite Verb and Verbless Complements

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">History of English in Singapore – 32 <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The most important of the languages that were in contact in the turn of century period which saw the origin of SCE, then, seem to have been: <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(1) Standard English <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(2) Assorted Southern varieties of Chinese of which Hokkien/Teochew and Canotonese are likely to be the most important <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(3) Baba Malay <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> (pg 46) – The use of English in Singapore’s highly competitive educational system is a further incentive to ambitious parents to develop the use of English in the home. For individuals who had established SCE as an informal variety, that was what was transmitted to the children. This then gave rise to a normal transmission of SCE which has helped it to develop a stability, in the sense that variation is dialectically and socially meaningful, rather than resulting from different degrees and types of interference in the individual’s use. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Vital lingua franca for children <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SCE associated with prestige groups (but is not prestigious itself) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">67% think SCE has no aesthetic value while the 60% of same group made to believe that society was being formed for ‘The promotion of Singapore English for local literature and drama’, expressed an interest in supporting such a society <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In may 1993: SCE banned from television (including comedy) because Singaporeans thought that television had an educational function. Std English and in an Singaporean accent was okay. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- SCE is characterised by its syntax (formation/arrangement of grammatical sentences), not it’s lexis (vocab) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- The lexis appears to be restricted by the general knowledge of English lexis of the speaker, and by the speaker’s perception of the level of comprehension of the hearer. Thus erudite words can be found in the most SCE background. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- Speakers also introduce lexical items from other languages, and code-shift, depending on their perceptions of the interlocutor’s repertoire (person they’re talking to) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- SCE -> identity marker rather than half-learnt version of English <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- Systemization of a creole may be based on the speech of those who have adequate knowledge of the norms, but choose the creole in order to identify with a community. **Similarly SCE has not emerged from those weak in English, but from those who use it habitually as a language of primary expression.** <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">(pg 56) <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">What does make Singapore somewhat unusual among creoles is that those who use SCE domestically..tend to be of high prestige. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">..the educational disadvantage and opprobrium which accrues to many creole speakers does not to the native SCE speakers, who, quite the opposite, hve in general a social and educational advantage.
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Language situation in early schools – 44 **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SCE in Singapore today – 47 **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Forms of the languages spoken in Singapore should show some convergence in syntax.
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">There has been some cross borrowing between English, Hokkien, Cantonese and Malay, so that certain lexical items (eg ‘roti’ bread from Malay, ‘koon’ sleep in hokkien)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Multilingualism is the norm in Singapore, and even domestic multilingualism is the norm rather than the exception. Creoles emerge out of multilingual situations and Singapore can be regarded as a laboratory in which an English contact variety is emerging. **First generation native SCE speakers are being created in Singapore now, very few of them monolingual. In these children growing up with SCE, SCE has become a native language, not an interlanguage.(pg 49)**
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> (pg 50) SCE, the Low variety of English, is used to express solidarity functions, which gives it a particular role in inter-ethnic contacts. SCE is a means of expressing national, rather than ethnic, identity, and is not the major inter-ethnic link language.
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SCE is more suitable as an element of solidarity than is StdE because while StdE is ethnically neutral, ability in it is a class marker (pg 51)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Acquiring Singapore Colloquial English – 52 **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">‘one parent one language’ policy (to promote bilingualism in children <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The maintenance of ‘one person, one language’ is incompatible with complicated multilingual family life, where people who do not share the same language repertoire may participate in the same conversation. The pattern of bilingualism in Singapore, characterised by rapid language shifts, code-mixing, and socially meaningful patterns of language use does not lend itself to this recommendation. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> SCE is learnt in an atmosphere of extreme linguistic tolerance, where many languages are (quite casually) acquired and lost, and where there is little emotional attachment to any language.
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Linguistic Repertoire – 64 **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Lingua franca - <span style="color: #0055bb; font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">any <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">[|language] that is widely used as a means ofcommunication among speakers of other languages